Palynostratigraphy, palynofacies, and organic thermal maturity of the Cretaceous sediments of Kobnaswaso - 1 Well, onshore Tano basin (Ghana)

Benjamin Fameyeh; David Atta-Peters; Chris Achaegakwo; Daniel K. Asiedu

doi:10.21701/bolgeomin/136.3/002

Authors

Benjamin Fameyeh Department of Earth Science, School of Physical and Mathematical Science, University of Ghana https://orcid.org/0009-0001-3091-700X
David Atta-Peters Department of Earth Science, School of Physical and Mathematical Science, University of Ghana https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1072-4040
Chris Achaegakwo Department of Earth Science, School of Physical and Mathematical Science, University of Ghana https://orcid.org/0009-0002-3763-1554
Daniel K. Asiedu Department of Earth Science, School of Physical and Mathematical Science, University of Ghana https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7410-8223

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.21701/bolgeomin/136.3/002

Keywords:

Palynostratigraphy, palynofacies, thermal maturation, Cretaceous, Tano Basin

Abstract

Particulate organic matter from sediments in the Kobnaswaso-1 well, onshore Tano Basin, Ghana was subjected to palynological analysis. Palynomorphs recovered allow for the identification of five informal biozones: Afropollis operculatus Total Range Zone (PZ-I) (?late Aptian), Elateropollenites jardinei - Sofrepites legouxiae Interval Zone (PZ-II) (early Albian to early Cenomanian), Triporites sp - Classopollis brasiliensis Interval Zone (PZ-III) (mid-late Cenomanian), Droseridites senonicus Interval Zone (PZ-IV) (late Turonian-Santonian), and Senegalinium laevigatum - Cordosphaeridium inodes - Andalusiella dubia Assemblage Zone (PZ-V) (early Campanian). PZ-I, PZ-II, and PZ-III suggest sediment deposition in relatively shallow marine habitats with vegetation growing in coastal local wetlands under semi-arid/arid climatic conditions. PZ-IV indicates the presence of rainforest trees under humid climatic conditions. PZ-V reflects sedimentation in mangrove environment under a warm humid tropical to subtropical climate. Palynofacies analysis revealed four palynofacies types: PF-1 (inner neritic zone with proximal suboxic-anoxic shelf condition), PF-2 (marginal marine setting with marginal dysoxic-anoxic basin redox condition), PF-3 (fluvio-deltaic and mud-dominated oxic shelf), and PF-4 (nearshore to shallow marine environment with dysoxic-anoxic redox condition). PF-1 is dominated by oil-prone materials (kerogen type II), while PF-2, PF-3, and PF-4 are dominated by gas-prone materials (kerogen type III). Observed Thermal Alteration Index (TAI), and Vitrinite Reflectance (Ro) indicate that, samples associated with PF-1 are thermally mature, whereas those of PF-2, PF-3, and PF-4 are considered thermally immature.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

References

Abdel-Kireem, M.R., Samir, A.M., Ibrahim, M.I.A. & Schrank, E., (1993). Cretaceous palaeoecology, palaeoclimatology and palaeogeography of the northern Western Desert of Egypt. In: U. Thorweihe and H. Schandelmeier (Editors?), Geoscientific Research in NE Africa. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp. 375-380. https://doi.org/10.1201/9780203753392-71

Abdel-Kireem, M.R., Schrank, E., Samir, A.M., & Ibrahim, M.I.A. (1996). Cretaceous palaeoecology, palaeogeography and palaeoclimatology of the northern Western Desert, Egypt. Journal of African Earth Sciences, 22, 93-112. https://doi.org/10.1016/0899-5362(95)00125-5

Aboul Ela, N.M, Tahoun, S.S., & Raafat, A., (2019). The Cretaceous (Barremian-Maastrichtian) palynostratigraphy and palynofacies of the Drazia-1 well, North Egypt. Palynology, 44(1), 94-113. https://doi.org/10.1080/01916122.2018.1510858

Aboul Ela N. M, & Mahrous, H.A.R. (1992). Albian-Cenomanian miospores from the subsurface of the north Western Desert, Egypt. Neues Jahrbuch fur Geologie und Palaontologie Monatschefte, 10, 595-613. https://doi.org/10.1127/njgpm/1992/1992/595

Abubakar, M.B., Obaje, N.G., Luterbatcher, H.P., Dike, E.F.C., & Ashraf, A.R. (2006). A report on the occurrence of Albian- Cenomanian elater-bearing pollen in Nasara-1 well, Upper Benue Trough, Nigeria: Biostratigraphic and palaeoclimatological implications. Journal of African Earth Sciences, 45, 347-354. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2006.03.008

Achaegakwo, C.A., & Atta-Peters, D. (2021). Palynofacies analysis and depositional environments of Upper Cretaceous sediments in the ST-9H well, offshore South Tano Basin, Western Ghana. Geological Journal, 56(6), 3225-3240. https://doi.org/10.1002/gj.4097

Adda, G.W. (2013). The petroleum geology and prospectivity of the Neo-Proterozoic, Paleozoic and Cretaceous sedimentary basins in Ghana. Search and discovery article, 105(44), 1-8.

Aggarwal, N. (2021). Sedimentary organic matter as a proficient tool for the paleoenvironmental and paleo depositional settings on the Gondwana coal deposits. Journal of Petroleum Exploaration and Production Technology. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13202-021-01331-x

Alaug, A.S., Mahmoud, M.S., Deaf, A.S., & AL-Ameri, T.K. (2014). Palynofacies, organic geochemical analyses and hydrocarbon potential of some Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous rocks, the Sabatayn-1 well, Central Yemen. Arabian Journal of Geosciences, 7, 2515-2530. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-013-0961-y

Al-Ameri, T.K., Al-Najar, T.K., & Batten, D.J. (2001). Palynostratigraphy and palynofacies indications of depositional environments and source potential for hydrocarbons: the mid-Cretaceous Nahr Umr and lower Mauddud formations, Iraq. Cretaceous Research, 22(6), 735-742. https://doi.org/10.1006/cres.2001.0288

Apaalse, L.A., & Atta-Peters, D. (2013). Cretaceous-Palaeogene palynology of the Keta-1 well offshore Keta basin, southeastern Ghana. World Applied Sciences Journal, 23(11), 1576-1583.

Arthur, T.J., MacGregor, D.S., & Cameron, N.R. (2003). Petroleum Geology of Africa-New themes and developing technologies: Geological Society, London, Special Publication, 207, 289 p.

Atta-Peters, D. (2013). Occurrences of elaterate pollen from the Lower Cretaceous of Ghana: Implications for biostratigraphy and palaeoclimatology. International Letters of Natural Sciences, 4. International Letters of Natural Sciences, 4, 54-56. https://doi.org/10.56431/p-c1m8f9

Atta-Peters, D., & Achaegakwo, C.A. (2016). Palynofacies and palaeoenvironmental significance of the Albian--Cenomanian succession of the Epunsa-1 well, onshore Tano Basin, western Ghana. Journal of African Earth Sciences, 114, 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2015.10.020

Atta-Peters, D., Achaegakwo, C. A., Kwayisi, D., & Garrey, P. (2015). Palynofacies and source rock potential of the ST-7H well, offshore Tano basin, Western Region, Ghana. Earth Science, 4, 1-20. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.earth.20150401.11

Atta-Peters, D., Agama, C. I., Asiedu, D. K., and Apesegah, E. (2013). Palynology, Palynofacies and Palaeoenvironments of Sedimentary Organic Matter from Bonyere - 1 Well, Tano Basin, Western Ghana. International Letters of Natural Sciences, 5, 27-45. https://doi.org/10.56431/p-i2vlvk

Atta-Peters, D., & Garrey, P. (2014). Source rock evaluation and hydrocarbon potential in the Tano basin, South Western Ghana, West Africa. International Journal of Oil, Gas and Coal Engineering, 2(5), 66-77. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ogce.20140205.11

Atta-Peters, D., & Kyorku, N. A. (2013). Palynofacies analysis and sedimentary environment of Early Cretaceous sediments from Dixcove 4-2x well, Cape Three Points, offshore Tano Basin, western Ghana. International Research Journal of Geology and Mining, 3(7), 270-281.

Atta-Peters, D., & Salami, M.B. (2004). Late Cretaceous to early tertiary pollen grains from offshore Tano basin, Southwestern Ghana. Revista Espanola de Micropaleontologia, 36(3), 451-465.

Atta-Peters, D., & Salami, M.B. (2006). Aptian-Maastrichtian palynomorphs from the offshore Tano Basin, western Ghana. Journal of African Earth Sciences, 46(4), 379-394. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2006.07.002

Bassiouni, M.E.M., E1-Shamma A.A. & Baioumi, A.A. (1992). Study of the microfloral characteristics of Aptian-Cenomanian sediments in WD-39-1, Western Desert, Egypt. Bull. Fac. Sci. Alexandria Univ., 32(A), 466-483.

Batten, D.J. (1983). Identification of amorphous sedimentary organic matter by transmitted light microscopy. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 12(1), 275-287. https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.SP.1983.012.01.28

Batten, D.J. & Uwins, P.J.R. (1985). Early-Late Cretaceous (Aptian-Cenomanian) Palynomorphs, Journal of the British Micropalaeontological Society, 4(1), 151-168. https://doi.org/10.1144/jm.4.1.151

Batten, D.J. (1996). Palynofacies and palaeoenvironmental interpretation. In: Jansonius, J. and McGregor, D.C. (eds), Palynology: Principles and application. American Association of Stratigraphic Palynologists'Foundation, Dallas, volume 3, 1011-1064.

Batten, D.J. (1999). Palynofacies analysis. In: Jones, T.P., and Rowe, N.P. (Eds.), Fossil Plants and Spores: Modern Techniques. Geological Society, London, pp. 194-198.

Bempong, F.K., Ozumba, B. M., Hotor, V., Takyi, B., & Nwanjide, C.S. (2019). A Review of the Geology and the Petroleum potential of the Cretaceous Tano Basin of Ghana. J Pet Environ Biotechnol, 10, 1-6.

Blarez, E., & Mascle, J. (1988). Shallow structures and evolution of the Ivory Coast and Ghana transform margin. Marine and Petroleum Geology, 5(1), 54-64. https://doi.org/10.1016/0264-8172(88)90039-6

Boltenhagen, E. (1967). Pollen et spore Senoniens du Gabon. Cahiers de Micropaleontologie, pp. 50

Boltenhagen, E. (1977). Microplancton du Cre'tace' supe'rieur du Gabon. Cah. Palae'ontol. pp. 150

Boltenhagen, E. (1980). Palynologie du Cretace superieur du Gabon. Com. Trav. Inst. Sci. Mrm. Sec. Sci. Paris, 7, 1-191.

Brenner, G.J. (1963). The spores and pollen of the Potomac Group of Maryland. Md. Dep. Geol. Mines Water Res. Bull., 27, 1-215.

Brenner, G.J. (1968). Middle Cretaceous spores and pollen from northeastern Peru. Pollen Spores, 10(2), 341-382.

Brownfield, M.E. (2016), Assessment of undiscovered oil and gas resources of the Gulf of Guinea Province, West Africa, in Brownfield, M.E., compiler, Geologic assessment of undiscovered hydrocarbon resources of Sub - Saharan Africa: U.S. Geological Survey Digital Data Series 69 - GG, chap. 4, 27 p. https://doi.org/10.3133/ds69GG

Brownfield, M.E., & Charpentier, R.R. (2006), Geology and total petroleum systems of the West - Central Coastal Province (7203), West Africa: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin, 2207 - B, pp 52.

Carvalho, M.D.A., Ramos, R.R.C., Crud, M.B., Witovisk, L., Kellner, A.W., Silva, H.D.P., & Romano, P.S. (2013). Palynofacies as indicators of paleoenvironmental changes in a Cretaceous succession from the Larsen Basin, James Ross Island, Antarctica. Sedimentary Geology, 295, 53-66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sedgeo.2013.08.002

Cookson, I.C. (1947). Plant microfossils from the lignites of the Kerguelen Archipelago. BANZ Antarctic Research Expedition, 1929-1931, Reports, Series A, 2, 129-142.

Couper R.A. (1958). British Mesozoic microspores and pollen grains. A systematic and stratigraphic study. Palaeontographica, B, 103, 75-179.

Davey, R. (1969). Non-calcareous microplankton from the Cenomanian of England. Pt 1: Bulletin of British Museum (Natural History). Geology, 17, 105-180. https://doi.org/10.5962/p.313834

Davey, R.J. (1970). Non-calcareous microplankton from the Cenomnain of England, northern France, and North America, Part II, Bulletins of the British Museum (Natural History), Geology, 18, 333-397.

Davies G. (1986). Geological and tectonic framework of the Republic of Ghana, and petroleum geology of the Tano Basin, Southwestern Ghana. Unpublished consultancy report prepared for Petro-Canada International Corporation on behalf of GNPC. pp. 24.

Davey, R.J., & Williams, G.L. (1966). The genus Hystrichosphaeridium and its allies, in Studies on Mesozoic and Cainozoic Dinoflagellate Cysts: In Davey, R.J., Downie, C., Sarjeant, W.A.S., and Williams, G.L., (Eds.), British Museum (Natural History) Geology, Bulletin, Supplement, 3, 53-106 https://doi.org/10.5962/p.310411

Deaf, A.S. (2009). Palynology, palynofacies and hydrocarbon potential of the Cretaceous rocks of northern Egypt. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Southampton, UK: University of Southampton pp. 348.

Deaf, A.S., Harding, I.C., & Marshall, J.E. (2014). Cretaceous (Albian-? early Santonian) palynology and stratigraphy of the Abu Tunis 1x borehole, northern Western Desert, Egypt. Palynology, 38(1), 51-77. https://doi.org/10.1080/01916122.2013.828662

Deaf, A.S., & Tahoun, S.S. (2018). Integrated palynological, organic geochemical, and sequence stratigraphic analyses of the middle to upper Cenomanian hydrocarbon reservoir/source Abu Roash "G" Member: a depositional model in northwestern Egypt. Marine and Petroleum Geology, 92, 372-402. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2017.11.005

Dino, R., Pocknall, D.T., & Dettmann, M.E. (1999). Morphology and ultrastructure of elater-bearing pollen from the Albian to Cenomanian of Brazil and Ecuador: implications for botanical affinity. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology, 105(3-4), 201-235. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0034-6667(98)00076-1

Doukaga, M. (1980). Etude palynologique dans le Cretace moyen du bassin sedimentaire du Gabon. Lille, France: Universite des Sciences et Technologies de Lille, 174p.

Downie, C., Hussain, M.A., & Williams, G.L. (1971). Dinoflagellate cyst and acritarch associations in the Paleogene of southeast England, Geoscience and Man, 3, 29- 35. https://doi.org/10.1080/00721395.1971.9989706

Doyle, J.A., Biens, P., Doerenkamp, A., & Jardine', S. (1977). Angiosperm pollen from the Pre-Albian Lower Cretaceous of Equatorial Africa. Bulletin Centres Recherche Exploration Prod. Elf-Aquitaine 1 (2), 451-473.

Doyle, J.A., Jardine, S., & Doerenkamp, A. (1982). Afiopollis, a new genus of early Angiosperm pollen with notes on the Cretaceous palynostratigraphy and paleoenvironments of Northern Gondwana. Bulletin Centres Recherches Exploration-Production Elf Aquitaine, 6(l), 39-117.

Doyle, J.A. (1992). Revised palynological correlations of the lower Potomac Group (USA) and the Cocobeach sequence of Gabon (Barremian-Aptian). Cretaceous Research, 13, 337-349. https://doi.org/10.1016/0195-6671(92)90039-S

Doyle, J.A. (1999). The rise of angiosperms is seen in the African Cretaceous pollen record. In: Proceedings of the 3rd Conference on African Palynology, Johannesburg, 14-19 September 1997.

Eisenack, A. (1963). Über einige Arten der Gattung Tasmanites Newton 1875. Grana Palynologica, 4(2), 203-216. https://doi.org/10.1080/00173136309436743

El Atfy, H. (2021). Palynofacies as a paleoennvironmental and hydrocarbon source potential assessment tool: An example from the Cretaceous of north Western Desert, Egypt. Paleobiodiversity and Paleoenvironments, 101(1), 35-50. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12549-020-00474-9

El Atfy, H., Kora, M., Soliman, A., Kassem, A.A.,Said, S., Aboulsaoud, A., El-Desouky, H., & Bomfleur, B. (2023). New insights into Coniacian - Santonian palynology in the Neo-Tethys (Egypt). with special emphasis on the ecological and depositional significance of the freshwater alga Pediastrum. Journal of African Earth Sciences, 205, 1-17 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2023.105006

El-Beialy, S.Y. (1993a). Aptian to Cenomanian palynomorphs from the Qarun 2-1 borehole, Western Desert, Egypt. Qatar Univ. Sci. J., 13(1), 152-160.

El-Beialy, S.Y. (1993b). Dinoflagellate cysts and miospores from the Albian-Cenomanian sequence of the Qarun 2-1 borehole, Western Desert, Egypt. Qatar Univ. Sci. J., 13(2), 301-307.

El-Beialy S.Y. (1995). Datation and palaeoenvironmental interpretation by microplankton and miospore assemblages of the Razzak Oil Field sediments, Western Desert, Egypt. Geobios. 28(6), 663-673. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0016-6995(95)80057-3

El-Beialy, S.Y., El Atfy, H.S., Zavada, M.S., El Khoriby, E.M., & Abu-Zied, R.H. (2010). Palynological, palynofacies, paleoenvironmental and organic geochemical studies on the Upper Cretaceous succession of the GPTSW-7 Well, north Western Desert, Egypt. Marine and Petroleum Geology, 27, 370-385. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2009.10.006

El-Beialy, S., El-Soughier, M., Mohsen, S.A., & El Atfy, H. (2011). Palynostratigraphy and paleoenvironmental significance of the Cretaceous succession in the Gebel Rissu-1 well, north Western Desert, Egypt. Journal of African Earth Sciences, 59(2-3), 215-226. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2010.10.007

El Diasty, W.S., El-Beialy, S.Y., Khairy, A., El-Attar, A.R.M., & Edwards, K.J. (2019). Palaeoenvironmental and source rock potential of the Turonian-Miocene sequence in the West Esh El Mellaha (SW margin of the Suez rift, Egypt): Insights from palynofacies, palynology and organic geochemistry. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology, 276, 104-190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.revpalbo.2020.104190

E1-Shamma, A.E. & Arafa, A.A. (1988). Early pollen angiosperms from the Lower Cretaceous sediments in the Northern part of the Western Desert, Egypt. Egypt J. Geol., 32(1/2), 263-272.

El-Shamma, A.E. & Baioumi, A.E. (1992). Early Cenomanian microfloral characteristics of the Salam Oil Field, Western Desert, Egypt. Bull. Fac. Sci. Alexandria Univ., 32(A), 444-464.

Elsik, W.C. (1964). A new sporomorph genus from eastern Peru. Pollen et Spores 6, 601-604.

El-Soughier, M.I., Deaf, A.S., & Mahmoud, M.S. (2013). Palynostratigraphy and palaeoenvironmental significance of the Cretaceous palynomorphs in the Qattara Rim-1X well, North Western Desert, Egypt. Arabian Journal of Geosciences, 7, 3051-3068. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-013-0954-x

Evitt, W.R., Clarke, R.F.A. & Verdier, J.P. (1967). Dinoflagellate studies, III. Dinogymnium acuminatum n.gen.n.sp. (Maastrichtian) and other fossils formerly referable to Gymnodinium Stein. Stanford Univ. Pub. Geol. Sci., 10(4), 1-27.

Federova, V.A. (1977). The significance of the combined use of microphytoplankton, spores, and pollen for differentiation of multi-facies sediments: In: Samolilovich, S.R. and Timoshina, N.A. (Eds.) Questions of Phytostratigraphy. Trudy Neftyanoi nauchno-issledovatelskii geologorazvedochnyi Institus (VNIGRI) Leningrad, (in Russian) 398, 70-88.

Garry, P., Atta-Peters, D., & Achaegakwo, C. (2016). Source-rock potential of the lower cretaceous sediments in sd-1x well, offshore Tano basin, southwestern Ghana. Petroleum and Coal, 58(4), 476-489.

Gentzis, T., Carvajal-Ortiz, H., Tahoun, S.S., Deaf, A., & Ocubalidet, S. (2019). Organic facies and hydrocarbon potential of the early-middle Albian Kharita Formation in the Abu Gharadig Basin, Egypt, as demonstrated by palynology, organic petrology, and geochemistry. International Journal of Coal Geology, 209, 27-39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2019.05.002

Germeraad, J.H., Hopping, C.A., & Muller, J. (1968). Palynology of Tertiary sediments from tropical areas. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology, 6, 189-348. https://doi.org/10.1016/0034-6667(68)90051-1

Goodall, J.G.S., Coles, G.P., & Whitaker, M.F. (1992). An integrated palynological, palynofacies and micropaleontological study of the pre-salt formations of the South Gabon subbasin and the Congo basin. Grol. Afr., Coll. Grol. Libreville, Rec. Commun., 6-8 May 1991, pp. 365-399.

Gubeli, A.A., Hochuli, P.A. & Wildi, W. (1984). Lower Cretaceous turbiditic sediments from the Rift chain (Northern Morocco) palynology, stratigraphy, and palaeogeographic setting. Geol. Rundsch., 73(3), 1081-1114. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01820889

Habib, D., & Miller, J.A. (1989). Dinoflagellate species and organic facies evidence of marine transgression and regression in the Atlantic Coastal Plain. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 74(1-2), 23-47. https://doi.org/10.1016/0031-0182(89)90018-7

Harding, I.C. (1986). An Early Cretaceous dinocyst assemblage from the Wealden of southern England. Special Papers in Palaeontology 35, 95-109.

Hedlund, R.W. & Norris, G. (1968). Spores and pollen grains from Fredericksburgian (Albian) Strata, Marshall Country, Oklahoma. Pollen Spores, 10(1), 129-159.

Herngreen, G.F.W. (1973). Palynology of the Albian-Cenomanian strata of borehole 1-QS-1-MA. State of Maranhao, Brazil. Pollen et Spores, 15 (3-4), 515-555.

Herngreen, G.F.W. (1975). Palynology of Middle and Upper Cretaceous strata in Brazil. Mededelingen Rijks Geologische Dienst, 26 (3), 39-91.

Herngreen, G.F.W. (1980). Cretaceous microfloral provinces. Berliner Geowiss. Abh. A., 19, 79-82.

Herngreen, G.F.W. (1998). Cretaceous sporomorph provinces and events in the equatorial region. Zentralblatt fur Geologie und Palaontolgie 1996 13 (11/12), 13-32.

Herngreen, G.F.W., & Chlonova, A.F. (1981). Cretaceous microfloral provinces. Pollen Spores, 23(3/4), 441-555.

Herngreen, G.F.W., & Dueñas-Jimenez, H. (1990). Dating of the Cretaceous Une Formation, Colombia and the relationship with the Albian-Cenomanian Africa-South-South American microfloral province. Review of Paleobotany and Palynology, 66, 345-359. https://doi.org/10.1016/0034-6667(90)90046-L

Herngreen, G.F.W., Kedves, M., Rovnina, L.V., & Smirnova, S.B. (1996). Cretaceous palynofloral provinces: a review. In: Jansonius, J., McGregor, D.C. (Eds.), Palynology: principles and applications, Vol. 3. American Association of Stratigraphic Palynologist Foundation, pp. 1157-1188.

Hughes, N.F., &Moody-Stuart, J.C. (1967). Palynological facies and correlation in the English Wealden. Rev. Palaeobot. Palynol., 1, 259-268. https://doi.org/10.1016/0034-6667(67)90127-3

Ibrahim, M.I.A. (1996). Aptian-Turonian palynology of the Ghazalat-1 well (GTX-1), Qattara Depression, Egypt. Rev. Palaeobot. Palyno., 94, 137-168. https://doi.org/10.1016/0034-6667(95)00135-2

Ibrahim, M.I.A. (2002). Late Albian-middle Cenomanian palynofacies and palynostratigraphy, Abu Gharadig-5 well, western desert, Egypt. Cretaceous Research, 23(6), 775-788. https://doi.org/10.1006/cres.2002.1027

Ibrahim, M.I.A, & Abdel-Kireem, M.R. (1997). Late Cretaceous palynofloras and foraminifera from Ain El-Wadi area, Farafra Oasis, Egypt. Cretaceous Research, 18(5), 633-660. https://doi.org/10.1006/cres.1997.0085

Ibrahim, M.I.A., & Schrank, E. (1996). Palynological studies on the late Jurassic-early Cretaceous of the Kahraman-1 well, northern Western Desert, Egypt. Bulletin des Centres de recherches exploration-production Elf-Aquitaine. Mémoire, (16), 611-629.

Islam, M.A. (1984). A study of Early Eocene paleoenvironments in the Isle of Sheppey as determined from microplankton assemblage composition, Tertiary Research, 6, 11-21.

Jardine', S. (1967). Spore a' expansions en form d'e'late'res du Cre'tace' moyen d'Afrique occidentale. Review of Paleobotany and Palynology, 1(1-4), 235-258. https://doi.org/10.1016/0034-6667(67)90126-1

Jardine', S., & Magloire, L. (1965). Palynologie et stratigraphie du Cre'tace' des bassins du Senegal et Coˆte d'Ivoire. Me'moire du bureau de recherches de ge'ologique et minie'res 32, 187-245.

Kesse, G.O. (1985). Mineral and Rock Resources of Ghana, A.A. Balkema Publishers, Rotterdam, The Netherlands, pp. 610.

Lawal, O. (1991). Palynological age and correlation of a black shale section in the Eze-Aku Formation, Lower Benue Trough, Nigeria. J. Afr. Earth Sci., 12(3),473-482. https://doi.org/10.1016/0899-5362(91)90139-P

Lawal, O., & Moullade, M. (1986). Palynological biostratigraphy of Cretaceous sediments in the Upper Benue Basin, N.E. Nigeria (1). Rev. Micropaleontol., 29(1), 61-83.

Lentin, J.K., & Williams, G.L. (1980). Dinoflagellate provincialism with emphasis on Campanian peridiniaceans. American Association of Stratigraphic Palynologist Foundation, Contribution Series 7, 1-47.

MacGregor, D.S., Robinson, J., & Spear, G., (2003). Play fairways of the Gulf of Guinea transform margin, in Arthur, T.J. MacGregor, D.S., and Cameron, N.R., eds., Petroleum geology of Africa-New themes and developing technologies. Geological Society, London, Special Publication, 207, 289 p. https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.SP.2003.207.7

Mahmoud, M.S. (1998). Palynology of Middle Cretaceous-Tertiary sequence of Mersa Matruh-1 well, northern Western Desert, Egypt. Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie-Abhandlungen, 79-104. https://doi.org/10.1127/njgpa/209/1998/79

Mahmoud, M.S. (2003). Palynology and palaeoenvironment of the Quseir Formation (Campanian) from central Egypt. Journal of African Earth Sciences, 36(3), 135-148. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0899-5362(03)00047-2

Mahmoud, M.S., & Deaf, A.S. (2007). Cretaceous palynology (spores, pollen, and dinoflagellate cysts) of the Siqeifa 1-X borehole, northern Egypt. Rivista Italiana di Paleontologia e Stratigrafia, 113(2), 203-221.

Mahmoud, M.S., Soliman, H.A., & Deaf, A.S. (2007). Early Cretaceous (Aptian-Albian) palynology of the Kabrit-1 borehole, onshore Northern Gulf of Suez, Egypt. Revista Española de Micropaleontología, 39(3), 169-187.

Mahmoud, M.S., & Moawad, A.M.M. (1999). Miospore and dinocyst biostratigraphy and palaeoecology of the Middle Cretaceous (Albian-Early Cenomanian) sequence of the Ghoroud-1X borehole, northern Western Desert, Egypt. In 1st International Conference on the Geology of Africa, Assiut, Egypt (Vol. 1, pp. 1-13).

Mahmoud, M.S., & Moawad, A.M.M. (2002). Cretaceous palynology of the Sanhur-IX borehole, Northwestern Egypt. Revista Espanola de Micropaleontologia, 34(2), 129-143.

Makled, W.A., Baioumi, A.H.A., & Saleh, R.A. (2013). Palynostratigraphical studies on some subsurface middle Albian-early Cenomanian sediments from North Western Desert, Egypt. Egyptian Journal of Petroleum, 22(4), 501-515. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpe.2013.11.005

Muller, J. (1968). Palynology of the Pedawan and plateau sandstone formations (Cretaceous-Eocene) in Sarawak, Malaysia. Micropaleontology, 1-37. https://doi.org/10.2307/1484763 PMid:40385574

Muller, J., de Di Giacomo, E., van Erve, & A.W., (1987). A palynological zonation for the Cretaceous, Tertiary, and Quaternary of Northern South America. American Association of Stratigraphic Palynologist Contribribution Series, 19, 7-76.

Norris G. (1967). Spores and pollen from the Lower Colorado Group (Albian-?Cenomanian) of Central Alberta. Palaeontogr. Abt. B, 120, pp. 72-115.

Oboh-Ikuenobe, F.E., Yepes, O., & Gregg, J.M. (1998). Palynostratigraphy, palynofacies, and thermal maturation of Cretaceous-Paleogene sediments from the Côte D'Ivoire-Ghana transform margin. In Proc Ocean Drill Prog Scient Res., 159, 277-318. https://doi.org/10.2973/odp.proc.sr.159.016.1998

Odebode, M.O. (1987). Palynological dating of the Lamja sandstone (Benue Basin, Nigeria) and its geological significance. Jour. Afr. Earth Sci., 6, 421-426. https://doi.org/10.1016/0899-5362(87)90085-6

Pacltova, B. (1959). On some plant microfossils from freshwater sediments of the Upper Cretaceous (Senonian) in the South Bohemian Basin. Sbornik Ustred Geologie, 26, 38-50.

Pacltova, B., & Simoncsics, P. (1970). New types of spores (genera and species) from the Bohemian Miocene- Palaont. Abh. B, 3, 599-617.

Pearson, D.L. (1990). Pollen/spores color standard: Bartlesville, Okla., Phillips Petroleum Company, Geology Branch.

Penny, J.H.J. (1991). Early Cretaceous angiosperm pollen from the borehole Mersa Matruh 1, North West Desert, Egypt. Palaeontographica B, 222, 31-88.

Peters, K.E., & Cassa, M.R. (1994). Applied source rock geochemistry. Chapter 5: Part II. Essential elements, pp. 94-120.

Petroleum Commission of Ghana (2020). Ghana's oil and gas industry; history, current and future trends. Available from: https://www.petrocom.gov.gh/exploration-history/ [Accessed: 05/ 09/2021].

Phipps, D., & Playford, G. (1984). Laboratory techniques for extraction of palynomorphs from sediments. Pap. Dep. Univ. Qd., 11(1), 1-23.

Pierce, R.L. (1961). Lower Upper Cretaceous plant microfossil from Minnesota. Minnesota Geological Survey, Bulletin 42, 86 p.

Playford, G. (1971). Palynology of the Lower Cretaceous (Swan River) strata of Saskatchewan and Manitoba. Paleontology, 14(4), 533-565.

Pflug, H.D. (1953). Zur Entstehung und Enturicklungdes angiospermiden pollens in der Erdgeschichte. Palaeontographica, 95B, 60-171.

Prévôt, L., Lucas, J., & Doubinger, J. (1979). Une correspondance entre le contenu palynologique et la composition minéralogique et chimique d'une série phosphatée sédimentaire (Ganntour, Maroc). Sciences Géologiques, bulletins et mémoires, 32(1), 69-90. https://doi.org/10.3406/sgeol.1979.1556

Quattrocchio, M.E., Martínez, M.A., Pavisich, A.C., & Volkheimer, W. (2006). Early Cretaceous palynostratigraphy, palynofacies and palaeoenvironments of well sections in northeastern Tierra del Fuego, Argentina. Cretaceous research, 27(4), 584-602. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cretres.2005.11.012

Regali, M.S.P., & Viana, C.F. (1989). Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous in Brazilian sedimentary basins: correlation with the international standard scale, Petrobras, Rio de Janeiro, pp. 95.

Reyre, Y. (1966). Palynologie du Crttac6 moyen du Sahara tunisien. Rev. Micropaltontol., 9(1), 3-18.

Salami, M.B. (1982). Palynological evidence of paleoenvironment of the Araromi Shale of Southwestern Nigeria: In de Porta, N.S., and Cervera, M.S. (Eds.). Acta Delivsim Simposio Palinologia, 363-385.

Salami, M.B. (1986). Some dinoflagellate cysts and acritarchs from the Late Cretaceous and Paleogene sediments of the Benin (Ex Dahomey) Embayment in Southwestern Nigeria. Ife Journal of Science, 1(1), 11-21.

Salami, M.B. (1988). Petrography and palynology of the Upper Maastrichtian Abeokuta formation of southwestern Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Science, 22(1-2), 127-140.

Salami, M. B. (1990). Palynomorph taxa from the "Lower Coal Measures" deposits (Campanian-Maastrichtian) of Anambra Trough, Southwestern Nigeria. Journal of African Earth Science, 11(1). https://doi.org/10.1016/0899-5362(90)90084-R

Salard-Cheboldaeff, M. (1990). Intertropical African palynostratigraphy from Cretaceous to Late Quaternary times. J. Afr. Earth Sci., 11(1/2), 1-24. https://doi.org/10.1016/0899-5362(90)90072-M

Sarjeant, W.A.S. (1981). A restudy of some dinoflagellate cyst holo-types in the University of Kiel Collections. II. The Eocene holo-types of Barbara Klumpp. 1953: with a revision of the genus Cordosphaeridium Eisenack 1963. Meyniana 33, 97-132.

Schrank, E. (1983). Scanning electron and light microscopic investigations of angiosperm pollen from the Lower Cretaceous of Egypt. Pollen et Spores, 25(2), 213-242.

Schrank, E. (1987). Palaeozoic and Mesozoic palynomorphs from northeast Africa (Egypt and Sudan) with special reference to late Cretaceous pollen and dinoflagellates. Berliner Geowissenschaftliche Abhandlungen A, 75(1), 249-310.

Schrank, E. (1990). Palynology of the classic Cretaceous sediments between Dongola and Wadi Muqaddam, Northern Sudan. Berliner Geowissenschaftliche Abhandlungen A, 120(1), 149-168.

Schrank, E. (1992). Nonmarine Cretaceous correlations in Egypt and northern Sudan: palynological and palaeobotanical evidence. Cretaceous Res., 13, 351-368. https://doi.org/10.1016/0195-6671(92)90040-W

Schrank, E. (1994). Palynology of the Yesomma formation in northern Somalia: a study of pollen, spores, and associated phytoplankton from the Late Cretaceous Palmae province. Paleontographica Abt. B., 321(1-6), 63-112.

Schrank, E. (2001). Paleoecological aspects of Afropollis/elaterate peaks (Albian- Cenomanian pollen) in the Cretaceous of Northern Sudan and Egypt. In: Goodman, D.K., and Clarke, R.T. (Eds.), Proceedings of the IX International Palynological Congress, Houston, Texas, USA, 1996. American Association of Stratigraphic Palynologist Foundation, pp. 201-210.

Schrank, E., & Ibrahim, M.I.A. (1995). Cretaceous Aptian-Maastrichtianpalynology of foraminifera dated wells (KRM-1, AG-18) in northwestern Egypt. Berliner Geowissenschaftliche Abhandlungen A, 177, 1-44.

Schrank, E., & Mahmoud, M.S. (1998). Palynology (pollen, spores and dinoflagellates) and Cretaceous stratigraphy of the Dakhla Oasis, central Egypt. Journal of African Earth Science, 26(2), 167-193. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0899-5362(98)00004-9

Schrank, E., & Nesterova, E.V. (1993). Palynofloristic changes and Cretaceous climates in northern Gondwana (NE Africa) and southern Laurasia (Kazakhstan). In: Thorweihe, H. and Schandelmeier U. (Eds.). Geoscientific Research in Northeast Africa, 381-390. https://doi.org/10.1201/9780203753392-72

Simmons, M., & Lowe, S. (1996). The future of palaeontology? An industrial perspective. Geoscientist, 6, 14-16.

Singh, C. (1964). Microflora of the Lower Cretaceous Mannville Group, east-central Alberta. Research Council of Alberta Bulletin, 15, 1-238 .

Smith, A.G., Hurley, A.M., & Briden, J.C. (1982). Pala¨okontinentale Weltkarten des Phanerozoikums. Enke, Stuttgart, pp. 102.

Srivastava, S.K. (1976). The fossil pollen genus Classopollis. Lethaia, 9, 437-457. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1502-3931.1976.tb00985.x

Stanley, E.A. (1965). The use of reworked pollen and spores for determining the Pleistocene-Recent and the intra-Pleistocene boundaries. Nature, 206, 289-291. https://doi.org/10.1038/206289a0

Sultan, I.Z. (1978). Mid-Cretaceous plant microfossils from the northern part of the Western Desert of Egypt. Rev. Palaeobot. Palynol., 25, 259-267. https://doi.org/10.1016/0034-6667(78)90030-1

Sultan, I.Z. (1987). Palynology of Albian-Cenomanian strata in Mersa Matruh Well, Western Desert, Egypt. J. Afr. Earth Sci., 6(5), 665-675. https://doi.org/10.1016/0899-5362(87)90005-4

Sultan, I.Z. & Aly, S.M. (1986). Palynological zonation of Albian-Cenomanian sediments in the northern part of the Western Desert of Egypt. Bull. Fac. Sci. Alexandria Univ., 26(3), 80-101.

Tahoun, S.S., & Deaf, A.S. (2016). Could the conventionally known Abu Roash "G" reservoir (upper Cenomanian) be a promising active hydrocarbon source in the extreme northwestern part of Egypt? Palynofacies, palaeoenvironmental, and organic geochemical answers. Marine and Petroleum Geology, 76, 231-245. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2016.05.025

Thusu, B., & Van der Eem, J.G.L.A. (1985). Early Cretaceous (Neocomian- Cenomanian) palynomorphs. In: Thusu, B., Owens, B. (Eds.), Palynology of northeast Libya. Journal of Micropaleontology, 4(1), 131-150. https://doi.org/10.1144/jm.4.1.131

Tissot, P., & Welte, D.H. (1984). Petroleum formation and occurrence. Springer-Verlag. pp. 720. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-87813-8

Traverse, A. (1988). Paleopalynology. Unwin Hyman, London, 600 pp.

Tyson, R.V. (1993). Palynofacies analysis. Applied micropalaeontology, 153-191. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-0763-3_5

Tyson, R.V. (1995). Sedimentary Organic Matter. Organic Facies and Palynofacies, Chapman and Hall, London, pp. 615. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-0739-6

Umeji, O.P. (2006). The geological history of sedimentation in the sub-basins of the Calabar flank, Southeastern Nigeria: Palynological evidence from the Ikono-1 will. Global journal of Geological sciences, 4(2), 86-101. https://doi.org/10.4314/gjgs.v4i2.45137

Uwins, P.J.R., & Batten, D.J. (1988). Early to mid-Cretaceous palynology of northeast Libya. In: A. E1-Arnauti, B. Owens and B. Thusu, (Eds), Subsurface Palynostratigraphy of Northeast Libya, pp. 215-258.

Van der Hammen, T. (1956). A palynological systematic nomenclature. Boletín Geológico y Minero, 4(2-3), 63-101. https://doi.org/10.32685/0120-1425/bolgeol4.2-3.1956.196

Van Hoeken-Klinkenberg, P.M.J. (1964). A palynological investigation of some Upper Cretaceous sediments in Nigeria. Pollen et Spores, 6(1), 209-231.

Wingate, F.H. (1980). Plant microfossils from the Denton Shale Member of the Bokchito Formation (Lower Cretaceous, Albian) in southern Oklahoma. Okla. Geol. Surv. Bull., 130, 93 pp.

Yepes, O. (2001). Maastrichtian‐danian dinoflagellate cyst biostratigraphy and biogeography from two equatorial sections in Colombia and Venezuela. Palynology, 25(1), 217-249. https://doi.org/10.2113/0250217

Zavattieri, A.M., Rosenfeld, U., & Volkheimer, W. (2008). Palynofacies analysis and sedimentary environment of Early Jurassic coastal sediments at the southern border of the Neuquén Basin, Argentina. Journal of south American Earth sciences, 25(2), 227-245. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsames.2007.06.006

Zobaa, M.K., El-Beialy, S.Y., El-Sheikh, H.A., & El Beshtawy, M.K. (2013). Jurassic--Cretaceous palynomorphs, palynofacies, and petroleum potential of the Sharib-1X and Ghoroud-1X wells, north Western Desert, Egypt. Journal of African Earth Sciences, 78, 51-65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2012.09.010

Zobaa, M.K., & Oboh-Ikuenobe, F.E. (2018). The magnificent seven: the stratigraphically most important mid-Cretaceous terrestrial palynofloral species in the north Western Desert, Egypt. Journal of Iberian Geology,44, 243-255. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41513-018-0062-6