Origins of architectural heritage: the resources and variety of natural stones in Slovenia
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.21701/bolgeomin/137.1/007Keywords:
Slovenian quarries, natural stone, stone monuments, cizlakite, Kras (Karst) quarry regionAbstract
The distinct geological variation of Slovene’s territory, which includes all three major types of natural stone (sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic), offers an ample selection of building and art materials to be chosen based on their properties and/or aesthetic appearance. The tectonic diversity of the area caused some difficulties in extracting some of the natural stones, resulting in quarries being abandoned for economic and spatial reasons, but some beautiful examples of the use of lasting value in both construction and art still persist. Examples include the abandoned quarries of Pohorje marble and Podpeč limestone, where extraction has been documented from as early as the Roman times, with the latter also designated as a Global Heritage Stone Resource. The Pohorje mountains are an area of granodiorite as well as green cizlakite, the latter being Slovenian endemic. Furthermore, the Kras (Karst) region is one of the most interesting areas containing natural stone reserves in Slovenia, with a large variety of Cretaceous shallow-water limestones. All of these are abandoned, with the two natural stone quarries still operating being associated with the presence of rudist biostromes and bioherms, which are responsible for the aesthetic appearance of these natural stones. It is also characteristic of Slovenia to use a variety of local rocks, such as sandstone, conglomerate, breccia, shale and tuff, to give character to vernacular architecture. Some of the quarries are designated and protected as valuable natural features or natural monument, while several buildings decorated with Slovene natural stones are declared as cultural monuments of local or national importance or included in the UNESCO World Heritage List. This paper presents the most significant Slovene quarries of natural stones that have been used in architectural heritage, the mineralogical and physical-mechanical characteristics of these stones, as well as examples of their use in monuments.
Downloads
References
Aničić, B., Ogorelec, B., Kralj, P., and Mišič, M. (2002). Lithology of Tertiary beds in Kozjansko, Eastern Slovenia. Geologija, 45(1), 213–246.
Aničić, B., and Ramovš, A. (1998). The Vundušek sandstone instead of the Ptujska Gora sandstone in western Haloze. Geologija, 41, 103–108.
Avguštin, C. (1987). Peračiški zeleni kamen v gorenjski arhitekturi = Der grüne Tuffstein von Peračica in der Architektur von Gorenjsko. Geološki zbornik, 8, 93–103.
Bilbija, N., and Matović, V. (2009). Primenjena petrografija: svojstva i primene kamna (2nd edition). Beograd: Građevinska knjiga.
Brajkovič, R., Cvetko Tešović, B., Jež, J., and Rožič, B. (2014). Sedimentološka analiza apnenčevih breč v maastrichtijskem flišu severovzhodne Bele krajine. In B. Rožič, T. Verbovšek, and M. Vrabec (Eds.) Povzetki in ekskurzije = Abstracts and field trips. 4. slovenski geološki kongres, Ankaran, 8.-10. oktober 2014 (pp. 67). Ljubljana: Univerza v Ljubljani, Naravoslovnotehniška fakulteta.
Brajkovič, R., Gale, L., and Djurić, B. (2022). Multi-method study of the Roman quarry at Podpeč sedimentary succession and stone products. Geologija, 65(1), 101–121.
Brenčič, M. and Poltnig, W. (2008) Podzemne vode Karavank : skrito bogastvo = Grundwasser der Karawanken : versteckter Schatz. Ljubljana and Graz: Geološki Zavod Slovenije and Joanneum Research Forschungsgesellschaft m.b.H.
Buser, S. (1987a). Basic Geological Map of SFRJ. L33-64. Sheet Tolmin and Videm (Udine). 1:100,000. Ljubljana: Geologicaly Survey of Slovenia.
Buser, S. (1987b). Naravni arhitektonsko-gradbeni kamni v Ljubljani. Geološki zbornik, 8, 61–67.
Buser, S. (1996). Geology of western Slovenia and its paleogeographic evolution. In: The Role of Impact Processes in the Geological and Biological Evolution of Planet Earth : International Workshop, September 27 - October 2, 1996, Postojna, Slovenia (pp. 111–123). Ljubljana: Znanstvenoraziskovalni center SAZU.
Buser, S. (2010). Geolgical map of Slovenia 1 : 250 000. Ljubljana: Geologicaly Survey of Slovenia.
Celarc, B. (2008). Carnian bauxite horizon on the Kopitov grič near Borovnica (Slovenia) – is there a »forgotten« stratigraphic gap in its footwall? Geologija, 51(2), 147–152.
Čopič, Š., Prelovšek, D., and Žitko Durjava, S. (1991). Ljubljansko kiparstvo na prostem. Ljubljana: Državna založba Slovenije.
Debeljak, I. (1997). Lithiotid bivalves in Slovenia and their mode of life. Geologija, 40, 11–64.
Debevec, G. (2015) Sedimentološka analiza škofjeloškega konglomerata v profilu Kamnitnik: diplomsko delo. NTF - Naravoslovnotehniška fakulteta. Available at: https://repozitorij.uni-lj.si/IzpisGradiva.php?lang=slv&id=73371 (Accessed: 30 May 2024).
Demšar, M. (2016). Geological map of the Selca valley 1:25.000 : explanatory book. Ljubljana: Geološki zavod Slovenije.
Djurić, B., Gale, L., Brajkovič, R., Zidanšek, I. B., Horn, B., Lozić, E., Mušič, B., and Vrabec, M. (2022). Kamnolom apnenca v Podpeči pri Ljubljani in njegovi izdelki. Arheološki Vestnik, 73, 155–198.
Djurić, B., and Rižnar, I. (2017). The rocks for Emona. In B. Županek and B. Vičič (Eds.) Emona MM : urbanisation of space - beginning of a town (pp. 121144). Ljubljana: Zavod za varstvo kulturne dediščine Slovenije, Mestni muzej, Muzej in galerije mesta Ljubljane.
Fatur, S., and Kunaver, D. (2000). Čar kamna. Ljubljana: samozaložništvo D. Kunaver (Zbirka Pod lipo domačo).
Gale, L. (2015). Microfacies characteristics of the Lower Jurassic lithiotid limestone from northern Adriatic Carbonate Platform (central Slovenia). Geologija, 58(2), 121–138.
Gale, L., Peybernes, C., Celarc, B., Hočevar, M., Šelih, V. S., and Martini, R. (2018). Biotic composition and microfacies distribution of Upper Triassic build-ups: new insights from the Lower Carnian limestone of Lesno Brdo, central Slovenia. Facies, 64(3).
Golež, M. (1999). Geološko vrednotenje kamnitih izdelkov iz miocenskih peščenjakov vzhodne Slovenije (magistersko delo/thesis).
Golež, M., and Mirtič, B. (2014). Stone heritage in Southeast Slovenia. Geological Society London Special Publications, 407(1), 233–242.
Goričan, Š., Žibret, L., Košir, A., Kukoč, D., and Horvat, A. (2018). Stratigraphic correlation and structural position of Lower Cretaceous flysch-type deposits in the eastern Southern Alps (NW Slovenia). International Journal of Earth Sciences, 107(8), 2933–2953.
Gutman, M. (2019). Kamniti kip: Ljubljana - grad Fužine, EŠD 136: poročilo naravoslovnih preiskav. Ljubljana: Zavod za varstvo kulturne dediščine Slovenije, Center za konservatorstvo, Restavratorski center.
Gutman Levstik, M. (2021). Kamnita plastika v parku dvorca Dornava - naravoslovne preiskave. In A. Mladenovič (Eds.) Summaries of the International Meeting of Conservators-Restorers 2021 (pp. 164). Ljubljana: Društvo restavratorjev Slovenije, Skupnost muzejev Slovenije.
Herlec, U., and Vidrih, R. (2006). Lehnjak. In R. Vidrih (Ed.) Scopolia. Supplementum 3 (pp. 223–228).
Hinterlechner-Ravnik, A. (2002). Metamorfne kamnine Pohorja : filiti, blestniki in gnajsi. Proteus, 64(6), 264–271.
Hinterlechner-Ravnik, A., and Trajanova, M. (2009). Metamorphic rocks. In M. Pleničar, B. Ogorelec, and M. Novak (Eds.) The Geology of Slovenia (pp. 6198). Ljubljana: Geological Survey of Slovenia.
IUGS - Podpeč limestone. (2024, May 30). Available at: https://iugs-geoheritage.org/geoheritage_stones/podpec-limestone/
Janák, M., Froitzheim, N., Yoshida, K., Sasinková, V., Nosko, M., Kobayashi, T., Hirajima, T., and Vrabec, M. (2015). Diamond in metasedimentary crustal rocks from Pohorje, Eastern Alps: a window to deep continental subduction. Journal of Metamorphic Geology, 33(5), 495–512.
Jarc, S., Maniatis, Y., Dotsika, E., Tambakopoulos, D., and Zupancic, N. (2010). SCIENTIFIC CHARACTERIZATION OF THE POHORJE MARBLES, SLOVENIA. Archaeometry, 52(2), 177–190.
Jelen, B. (1990). The Karnian bivalves (Mollusca) from Lesno brdo, Slovenia, NW Yugoslavia and their paleobiological significance. Geologija, 31/32, 11–127.
Jeršek, M., Žorž, M., Bedjanič, M., Žorž, Z., and Podgoršek, V. (2020). Mineralno bogastvo Pohorja. Proteus, 83(2/5), 75–94.
Jurkovšek, B. (2010). Geological map of the northern part of the Trieste-Komen plateau 1: 25 000, explanatory book. Ljubljana: Geologicaly Survey of Slovenia.
Jurkovšek, B., Cvetko Tešović, B. and Kolar-Jurkovšek, T. (2013). Geology of Kras. Ljubljana: Geologicaly Survey of Slovenia.
Jurkovšek, B., Toman, M., Ogorelec, B., Šribar, L., Drobne, K., Poljak, M., and L. Šribar (1996). Geological map of the southern part of the Trieste-Komen plateau, Cretaceous and paleogene carbonate rocks 1:50 000 (pp. 143). Ljubljana: Inštitut za geologijo, geotehniko in geofiziko.
Kastelic, V., and Kramar, S. (2005). Vrednotenje vunduškega peščenjaka z vidika možnosti uporabe v restavratorske namene. RMZ - Materials and geoenvironment : periodical for mining, metallurgy and geology, 52(2), 447–462.
Korat, L., Mirtič, B., Mladenovič, A., Pranjić, A. M., and Kramar, S. (2014). Formulation and microstructural evaluation of tuff repair mortar. Journal of Cultural Heritage, 16(5), 705–711.
Kossmat, F. (1903). Das Gebirge zwischen dem Bacathale und der Wocheiner Save. Verhandlungen der Geologischen Bundesanstalt, 111–124.
Kralj, P. (2009). Tertiary Volcanic Formations. In M. Pleničar, B. Ogorelec, and M. Novak (Eds.) The Geology of Slovenia (pp. 503514). Ljubljana: Geological survey of Slovenia.
Kramar, S., Bedjanič, M., Mirtič, B., Mladenović, A., Rožič, B., Skaberne, D., Gutman, M., Zupančič, N., and Cooper, B. (2015a). Podpeč limestone: a heritage stone from Slovenia. Geological Society London Special Publications, 407(1), 219–231.
Kramar, S., Mirtič, B., Knöller, K., and Rogan-Šmuc, N. (2011a). Weathering of the black limestone of historical monuments (Ljubljana, Slovenia): Oxygen and sulfur isotope composition of sulfate salts. Applied Geochemistry, 26(9–10), 1632–1638.
Kramar, S., Mirtič, B., Mladenović, A., Bedjanič, M., Rožič, B., and Šmuc, A. (2015b). The Karst region of Slovenia: a potential global heritage Stone province. In Springer eBooks (pp. 223–227).
Kramar, S., Mladenovič, A., Kozamernik, M., and Mirtič, B. (2010a). Durability evaluation of some Slovenian building limestones. RMZ-materials and geoenvironment, 57(3), 331-346. URN:NBN:SI:doc-FTZ0AZTW from http://www.dlib.si.
Kramar, S., Mladenovič, A., Pristacz, H., and Mirtič, B. (2011b). Deterioration of the black Drenov grič limestone on historical monuments (Ljubljana, Slovenia). Acta carsologica, 40(3), 483-495. URN:NBN:SI:DOC-VPA1ZD24 from http://www.dlib.si.
Kramar, S., Trajanova, M., Dolenec, M., Gutman, M., Bedjanič, M., and Mladenovič, A. (2015c). Heritage Stone 7. Pohorje granodiorite – one of the most significant Slovenian natural stones. Geoscience Canada, 43(1), 79.
Kramar, S., Urosevic, M., Pristacz, H., and Mirtič, B. (2010b). Assessment of limestone deterioration due to salt formation by micro-Raman spectroscopy: application to architectural heritage. Journal of Raman Spectroscopy, 41(11), 1441–1448.
Kramar, S., Žbona, N., Bedjanič, M., Mladenović, A., and Rožič, B. (2019). Drenov Grič black limestone: a heritage stone from Slovenia. Geological Society London Special Publications, 486(1), 149–162.
Kuzman, J. (2012). Kamnito bogastvo Pohorja: naša naravna in kulturna dediščina = The rocky riches of Pohorje. Slovenske Konjice: samozaožništvo J. Kuzman.
Malenšek Andolšek, N., and Markič, M. (2021). Organic petrological characterisation and facies interpretation of the Upper Triassic (Carnian – Julian) black limestone in the Lesno Brdo area (External Dinarides, Central Slovenia). Marine and Petroleum Geology, 128, 105056.
Markič, M. (2009). Pliocene and Plio-quaternary. In M. Pleničar, B. Ogorelec, and M. Novak (Eds.) The geology of Slovenia (pp. 427440). Ljubljana: Geological Survey of Slovenia.
Miklavič, B., and Rožič, B. (2008). The onset of Maastrichtian basinal sedimentation on Mt. Matajur, NW Slovenia = Začetek maastrichtijske bazenske sedimentacije na Matajurju, SZ Slovenija. RMZ – Materials and Geoenvironment, 55(2), 199–214.
Miletić, S., and Novak, M. (2021) EuroLithos atlas: ornamental stone resources in Slovenia. Available at: https://repository.europe-geology.eu/egdidocs/eurolithos/eurolithos+country+atlas_slovenia.pdf.
Ministrstvo za kulturo RS. (2024, May 30). Register nesnovne kulturne dediščine. Available at: https://podatki.gov.si/dataset/register-zive-nesnovne-kulturne-dediscine
Ministrstvo za kulturo RS. (2024, May 30). Register nepremične kulturne dediščine. Available at: https://podatki.gov.si/dataset/register-nepremicne-kulturne-dediscine/resource/e6a390bb-8d31-4dc2-b0a2-387d83aa5940
Mirtič, B., Mladenovič, A., Ramovš, A., Vesel, J., and Vižintin, N. (1999). Slovenski naravni kamen. Ljubljana: Geological Survey of Slovenia, Slovenian National Building and Civil Engineering Institute, University of Ljubljana - Geology department.
Mlakar, I., Skaberne, D., and Drovenik, M. (1992). On geological structure and mineralization in Carboniferous rocks north of Litija, Slovenia. Geologija, 35(1), 229–286.
Novak, M. (2016a). A geological tour of Ljubljana : natural stone in cultural monuments. Ljubljana: Municipality of Ljubljana, Department for environmental protection.
Novak, M. (2016b). Lithological composition. In: Novak, M. and Rman, N. (Eds.) Geological atlas of Slovenia (pp. 1415). Ljubljana: Geological survey of Slovenia.
Pavšič, J., and Horvat, A. (2009). The Eocene, Oligocene and Miocene in Central and Eastern Slovenia. In M. Pleničar, B. Ogorelec, and M. Novak (Eds.) The Geology of Slovenia (pp. 373–426). Ljubljana: Geological survey of Slovenia.
Pavšič, J., and Peckmann, J. (1996). Stratigraphy and sedimentology of the Piran flysch area (Slovenia). Annales. Series historia naturalis, 6(9), 123–138.
Placer, L. (1998). Contribution to the macrotectonic subdivision of the border region between Southern Alps and External Dinarides. Geologija, 41, 223–255.
Placer, L. (2008). Principles of the tectonic subdivision of Slovenia. Geologija, 51(2), 205–217.
Poljak, M., Lapanje, A., Gušić, I., Bole, B., and Ogorelec, B. (2005). Borehole MET-1/04 near Metlika, between the External and Internal Dinarides (SE Slovenia). Geologija, 48(1), 53–72.
Poljak, M., Rižnar, I., Demšar, M., Novak, M., and Toman, M. (2017). Geological map of the eastern part of the Krško basin 1:25.000. Ljubljana: Geologicaly Survey of Slovenia.
Rainer, T., Sachsenhofer, R., Green, P., Rantitsch, G., Herlec, U., and Vrabec, M. (2016). Thermal maturity of Carboniferous to Eocene Sediments of the Alpine–Dinaric Transition Zone (Slovenia). International Journal of Coal Geology, 19–38.
Ramovš, A. (1987). Paleozojske gradbene in okrasne kamnine v severni Sloveniji. Geološki zbornik, 8, 13–24.
Ramovš, A. (1995). Hotaveljčan skozi čas. Hotavlje: Marmor Hotavlje.
Ramovš, A. (2000). Podpeški in črni ter pisani lesnobrdski apnenec skozi čas. Ljubljana: Mineral.
Ramovš, A. (2008). Peračiški zeleni kamen: pomnik mnogih gorenjskih cerkva in domačij. Ljubljana: Druina.
Resman, B. (2006). Kiparska oprema na Strmolu. In M. Preinfalk (Ed.) 2 Kronika 54 - iz zgodovine gredu Strmol na Gorenjskem (pp. 317–326). Ljubljana: Zveza zgodovinskih društev Slovenije.
Rožič, B., Uchman, A., Malej, A., Čermelj, B., Gale, L., Bartol, M., and Verbovšek, T. (2023). Fosilne meduze v eocenskem flišu kamnoloma Eleri pri Škofijah. In B. Rožoč (Ed.) 26th Meeting of Slovenian Geologists (pp. 155–159). Ljubljana: University of Ljubljana: Faculty of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Department of geology.
Rožič, B., and Žvab Rožič, P. (2023). Influence of Geological Structure on Micro-location of Submarine Karstic Sulphur Springs near Izola (SW Slovenia). Acta Carsologica, 52(1).
Schlagintweit, F., Gerčar, D., and Rožič, B. (2023). Reworked neritic fauna in the Lower Cretaceous ‘Lower Flyschoid Formation’ of the Tolmin Nappe (Slovenia): New data on biostratigraphy and palaeogeography. Cretaceous Research, 154, 105746.
Spanžel, Š., Štoka, T., Karo, Š., Kavčič, M., and Zupančič, B. (2020). Ljubljana: the timeless, human capital designed by Jože Plečnik: nomination for inscription on the World Heritage List. Ljubljana: Ministry of Culture, Cultural Heritage Directorate.
Trajanova, M., Zupančič, N., and Dobnikar, M. (2009). Tertiary magmatism. In M. Pleničar, B. Ogorelec, and M. Novak (Eds.) The geology of Slovenia (pp. 491–502). Ljubljana: Geological Survey of Slovenia.
UNESCO - The works of Jože Plečnik in Ljubljana – Human Centred Urban Design. (2024, May 30). Available at: https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1643
Vesel, J., and Senegačnik, A. (2000). Kamnine in izdelki sedanjih kamnolomov. In Čar kamna (pp. 107–141). Samozaložništvo D. Kunaver.
Mirijam, V., Rogan Šmuc, N., and Marko, V. (2018). Calcite deformation twins in Pohorje marbles. Geologija, 61(1), 73–84.
Zavadlav, S., Rožič, B., Dolenec, M., and Lojen, S. (2017). Stable isotopic and elemental characteristics of recent tufa from a karstic Krka River (south-east Slovenia): useful environmental proxies? Sedimentology, 64(3), 808–831.
Žitko Durjava, S. (1996). Po sledeh časa: spomeniki v Sloveniji: 1800-1914. Ljubljana: Debora.
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
© CSIC. Manuscripts published in both the print and online versions of this journal are the property of the Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, and quoting this source is a requirement for any partial or full reproduction.
All contents of this electronic edition, except where otherwise noted, are distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) licence. You may read the basic information and the legal text of the licence. The indication of the CC BY 4.0 licence must be expressly stated in this way when necessary.
Self-archiving in repositories, personal webpages or similar, of any version other than the final version of the work produced by the publisher, is not allowed.
